A voz passiva: ser, se, estar e particípios duplos
Portuguese has THREE main passive constructions, each with its own use. (1) PASSIVA COM SER — the full passive: ser (in any tense) + particípio passado, agreeing in gender/number with the subject; the agent is optional, introduced by por. O livro foi escrito por ela = the book was written by her. (2) SE PASSIVO — the impersonal/middle passive with se: Vendem-se livros = books are sold (here) / books for sale. The verb agrees with the (logical) subject. Used when the agent is unknown or irrelevant. (3) ESTAR + PARTICÍPIO — the resultative: describes the resulting STATE, not the action. A porta está aberta = the door is open (state) vs. A porta foi aberta = the door was opened (event). Plus a quirk: a handful of EP verbs have TWO past participles (regular + irregular), and you pick the right one by which auxiliary you're using.
Passiva com ser — the full passive
Structure: subject + ser (any tense) + particípio passado (agrees) + (por + agent). The participle is treated like an adjective and agrees in gender and number with the subject. PRESENT — A casa é construída por uma equipa local = the house is built by a local team. PRETÉRITO PERFEITO — O livro foi escrito por Saramago = the book was written by Saramago. IMPERFEITO — As cartas eram lidas em voz alta = the letters were read aloud (habitually). FUTURO — O contrato será assinado amanhã = the contract will be signed tomorrow. CONJUNTIVO — Espero que o problema seja resolvido = I hope the problem will be solved. The agent (por + noun) is optional and often omitted: A reunião foi cancelada = the meeting was cancelled. Agreement: O bolo foi comido (m.sg), A torta foi comida (f.sg), Os bolos foram comidos (m.pl), As tortas foram comidas (f.pl). EP keeps this passive alive in writing and formal speech; in casual speech the se passivo or an active 3rd-pl impersonal (fizeram um anúncio = an announcement was made) is more common.
Se passivo — books are sold here
Structure: 3rd-person verb + se + (logical) subject. The verb agrees with the subject (singular OR plural). Vende-se uma casa = a house is for sale. Vendem-se livros = books are sold (here). Aluga-se quarto = room for rent. Alugam-se quartos = rooms for rent. Common in classified ads, signs and impersonal statements. Pronoun position follows lesson 31: ênclise by default — Fala-se português aqui = Portuguese is spoken here. Próclise after triggers — Não se vende álcool a menores = alcohol isn't sold to minors. Aqui se faz, aqui se paga (proverb) = what is done here is paid for here. Distinguish from the IMPERSONAL se (singular only, no logical subject in nominative): Vive-se bem em Portugal = one lives well in Portugal — here se = 'one / people in general' and the verb stays singular. The line between se passivo and impersonal se is fuzzy; modern grammars often treat them together. Practical rule: if there's a noun that could be the subject and you can pluralize the verb, it's passive (Vendem-se carros); if the verb is intransitive or has no nominative argument, it's impersonal (Vive-se bem, Trabalha-se muito).
Estar + particípio — the resulting state
Ser + particípio describes the ACTION (an event happens to the subject). Estar + particípio describes the STATE that results from a prior action. The contrast: A porta foi fechada às oito = the door was closed (someone closed it) at eight — event. A porta está fechada = the door is closed (it's in the closed state) — state. O problema foi resolvido ontem = the problem was solved yesterday — event. O problema está resolvido = the problem is solved (i.e. it's now in a solved state) — state. A janela foi aberta pelo vento = the window was opened by the wind — event. A janela está aberta = the window is open — state. Other examples: A loja está fechada = the shop is closed (right now). O carro está estacionado = the car is parked. A mesa está posta = the table is set. O jantar está pronto = dinner is ready. With estar, you're not naming an agent — there's no por + doer here, because you're describing how the thing currently is, not who did it.
Particípios duplos — entregue / entregado, pago / pagado
Some EP verbs have TWO past participles: a REGULAR one (in -ado/-ido) and an IRREGULAR (often shorter) one. The rule: use the REGULAR participle with ter / haver (the active perfect tenses); use the IRREGULAR participle with ser / estar (passive and resultative). Common pairs: aceitar → aceitado (with ter) / aceite (with ser/estar). entregar → entregado / entregue. pagar → pagado / pago. ganhar → ganhado / ganho. gastar → gastado / gasto. acender → acendido / aceso. prender → prendido / preso. soltar → soltado / solto. morrer → morrido (with ter) / morto (with ser/estar). eleger → elegido / eleito. expulsar → expulsado / expulso. Examples: Tinha pagado a conta = he had paid the bill (active, ter). A conta foi paga = the bill was paid (passive, ser). A conta está paga = the bill is paid (state, estar). Tinham aceitado o convite vs. O convite foi aceite. EP is stricter about this split than BR, where the irregular form often wins everywhere. A few verbs (ganhar, gastar, pagar) have, in modern usage, dropped the regular participle even with ter — so tenho ganho / tenho gasto / tenho pago are now widely accepted.
When to choose which passive
Choose ser + particípio when: you want a real passive with an explicit or implicit agent; the register is formal or written; you need a specific tense (e.g. future, conjuntivo). A lei será aprovada pelo parlamento = the law will be approved by parliament. Choose se passivo when: the agent is unknown, irrelevant, or generic; you want a casual, sign-board, or instructions feel; the focus is on the action, not on who did it. Procura-se empregada = housekeeper wanted. Não se entra com sapatos = no entry with shoes. Choose estar + particípio when: you're describing the current STATE, not a past event; you'd say 'is open / closed / done / ready' in English. O ginásio está fechado aos domingos = the gym is closed on Sundays. PITFALL: don't use estar foi or stack passives. Wrong: a porta estava sido fechada. Right: a porta tinha sido fechada (active perfect, passive sense — tinha + sido + fechada). EP commonly uses this 'compound passive': ter + sido + particípio = had been + V-ed: A casa tinha sido vendida antes = the house had been sold before.
BR notes and pitfalls
BR uses the same three constructions but tends toward the se passivo more in speech and is laxer about double participles (often tem pago, foi pago both with pago). EP keeps the regular/irregular split tighter, especially for aceitar/aceite, entregar/entregue, eleger/eleito. Pitfall 1: forgetting agreement. As cartas foram escritAS (f.pl), not foram escrito. Pitfall 2: confusing ser and estar passives. A porta foi fechada ≠ A porta está fechada — first reports an event, second describes a state. Pitfall 3: with se passivo, forgetting plural agreement. Vendem-se livros (verb agrees with livros), not vende-se livros. Pitfall 4: using a regular participle in passive. O livro foi entregado — wrong in EP; O livro foi entregue. Pitfall 5: por + agent is the standard; de + agent is rare and literary (conhecido de todos = known by all). Stick with por unless you see a fixed expression with de.
