Hearsay and source-marking — 听说, 据说, 据 X 说, 据 X 来看
Native speakers don't usually assert second-hand information bare — they flag it. The most common hearsay marker is 听说 tīngshuō (literally 'hear-say') = 'I hear that... / they say that...'. More formal / written is 据说 jùshuō = 'it is said that...' (no specific source). To name a source, use 据 + source + 说: 据他说 = 'according to him', 据报道 = 'according to reports'. To frame an inference from evidence, use 据 + source + 来看 / 来说: 据我来看 = 'from my perspective / as I see it', 据目前的情况来看 = 'judging from the current situation'. These contrast sharply with bare 说 (just 'say'), which makes no claim about reliability. Together they form Mandarin's evidentiality system — how to be a careful, sourced, journalistic, or merely gossipy speaker.
听说 — 'I hear that... / they say...' (conversational)
听说 is the everyday hearsay marker. Literally 听 (hear) + 说 (say). Functionally: 'I heard / I've been told / word is that...'. 听说他要结婚了。 = I hear he's getting married. 听说那家餐厅很好吃。 = I hear that restaurant is really tasty. 听说北京下雪了。 = I hear it snowed in Beijing. The pattern is 听说 + Clause — 听说 sits at the front of the borrowed claim. The speaker is signaling 'this is second-hand; don't blame me if it's wrong.' Note the difference: 他说他要结婚了 = he said he's getting married (specific source: he). 听说他要结婚了 = I hear he's getting married (no specific source — could be anyone). Use 听说 for casual conversation, gossip, news fragments, recommendations heard from others. Negation: 没听说 = I haven't heard. 我没听说过这件事 = I haven't heard of this matter. With 过 to mark experiential 'have/haven't heard of'.
据说 — 'it is said that...' (more formal)
据说 is the more formal / written cousin of 听说. Literally 据 (according to / based on) + 说 (say). Used in journalism, history-telling, and careful prose. 据说这座桥有一千年的历史。 = It is said this bridge is a thousand years old. 据说他是当地最有钱的人。 = He is said to be the richest person locally. 据说那本书快要出版了。 = That book is said to be about to be published. 据说 has a slight 'legend / common knowledge' flavor — what 'they' say without specifying who. It's more impersonal than 听说. Compare: 听说他病了 (I personally heard he's sick — gossipy) vs. 据说他病了 (it's reported / said he's sick — more detached, journalistic). In news writing 据说 is everywhere; in casual chat 听说 wins. Both translate to English 'it is said' or 'I hear', but native speakers feel the register difference. Use 据说 for written-style claims, established legends, second-hand history. Use 听说 for personal hearsay.
据 + source + 说 — 'according to X'
To name the source of a claim, use 据 + source + 说: 据他说 = according to him, 据老王说 = according to Old Wang, 据她妈妈说 = according to her mother. 据他说,公司明年要扩张。 = According to him, the company is going to expand next year. 据老师说,这次考试很难。 = According to the teacher, this exam is very hard. The source can also be an institution or document: 据报道 = according to reports, 据新闻报道 = according to news reports, 据调查 = according to investigation/surveys, 据统计 = according to statistics, 据《人民日报》报道 = according to The People's Daily. 据报道,北京昨天下了大雪。 = According to reports, Beijing had heavy snow yesterday. 据统计,中国有十四亿人口。 = According to statistics, China has 1.4 billion people. This is the journalistic / academic register par excellence. The pattern is endlessly productive: 据 + [whoever/whatever's the source] + 说/报道/介绍/分析.
据 + source + 来看 / 来说 — 'judging from X / from X's perspective'
Beyond mere reporting, 据 can frame an INFERENCE from evidence. 据 + X + 来看 = 'judging from X / based on X / from the standpoint of X'. 据目前的情况来看,我们应该等一等。 = Judging from the current situation, we should wait a bit. 据我来看,这是一个好主意。 = From my perspective, this is a good idea. 据专家来看,这种病不严重。 = According to experts (judging from their view), this illness isn't serious. 据 X 来说 is similar but slightly more 'in terms of X / as far as X is concerned': 据我来说,我喜欢冬天。 = As for me / from my standpoint, I like winter. 据经验来说,这种事最好早一点做。 = Based on experience, this kind of thing is best done early. The difference between 来看 and 来说: 来看 emphasizes JUDGMENT from evidence, 来说 emphasizes PERSPECTIVE / topic-framing. Both are formal — written register or careful spoken explanation. Common in business meetings, analyses, opinions: 据我们的分析来看... = based on our analysis... 据这次调查来看... = judging from this survey...
Bare 说 vs. 听说 vs. 据说 — the evidentiality scale
Mandarin has a graded evidentiality system, even if not as morphologically encoded as Tibetan or Quechua. Bare 说: just reports speech, makes no claim about reliability. 他说他不来了 = he said he's not coming. (You're quoting him.) 听说: I personally heard / it's hearsay. Speaker disclaims direct knowledge. 听说他不来了 = I hear he's not coming. (Don't shoot the messenger.) 据说: it's said / commonly reported. More impersonal, often common-knowledge or news-flavored. 据说他病了 = it's said he's sick. 据 X 说: explicit source. Maximally accountable — you can check the source. 据他妈妈说,他病了 = according to his mother, he's sick. The progression bare 说 → 听说 → 据说 → 据 X 说 moves from quoting → vague hearsay → impersonal report → cited report. Skilled speakers and writers pick the right one for the situation. In journalism, 据 X 报道 is the gold standard. In gossip, 听说 is universal. In legend-telling, 据说 is the storyteller's friend.
听说过 vs. 听说 — experiential vs. specific
There's an important distinction between 听说 + Clause (I hear that X) and 听说过 + NP (I've heard of X / heard mention of X). The 过 marks experiential aspect — 'have at some point heard of'. 你听说过这个人吗? = Have you heard of this person? 我听说过这本书,但是没看过。 = I've heard of this book, but I haven't read it. 没听说过 = haven't heard of it. 我没听说过这件事。 = I haven't heard of this matter. 听说过 is often used to ask if someone is FAMILIAR with an entity / topic, while 听说 + Clause reports a specific piece of news. 听说他结婚了 = I hear he got married (specific news). 听说过他 = (I've) heard of him (familiarity). The same applies to 没听说 (didn't hear specific news) vs. 没听说过 (am not familiar with). Note that 据说 doesn't have a parallel 据说过 — 据说 is fixed for impersonal report only.
Common patterns and traps
Trap 1: missing the hearsay marker entirely. Reporting second-hand info bare (他病了) implies you KNOW he's sick. If you only heard, mark it: 听说他病了. Otherwise you'll be embarrassed when it turns out wrong. Trap 2: register mismatch. Saying 据说我朋友昨天买了一只猫 (it is said my friend bought a cat) sounds absurd — that personal trivia calls for 听说. Reserve 据说 for impersonal / news-like claims. Trap 3: confusing 据 with 据说. 据 alone is a preposition meaning 'according to / based on'; it always needs something after it (a source + 说/报道/来看/etc.). 据说 is a fixed two-syllable adverb meaning 'it is said'. Trap 4: mixing up 来看 and 来说. 据 X 来看 = judging from X (inference); 据 X 来说 = as for X (topic / perspective). Both are formal; pick the one that matches what you mean. Trap 5: 听说过 vs. 听说. 听说过 + NP for familiarity (heard OF), 听说 + Clause for specific news (heard THAT). Trap 6: forgetting comma after the 据 phrase. 据他说,公司要扩张 — the comma is standard in writing after the source phrase. Trap 7: thinking 听说 is informal-only. It's neutral; works in casual chat AND in interviews / reasonably careful speech. Only super-formal writing prefers 据说 / 据 X 报道.
